American Government 1. The Nature of Government   a. The Purposes of Government   b. Types of Government   c. What Is a Democracy?   d. Democratic Values — Liberty, Equality, Justice 2. Foundations of American Government   a. The Colonial Experience   b. Independence and the Articles of Confederation   c. Creating the Constitution   d. The Bill of Rights 3. Federalism   a. The Founders and Federalism   b. Tipping the Scales Toward National Power   c. Federal-State Relations Today: Back to States' Rights? 4. American Political Attitudes and Participation   a. American Political Culture   b. What Factors Shape Political Attitudes?   c. Measuring Public Opinion   d. Participating in Government   e. Voting: A Forgotten Privilege? 5. How Do Citizens Connect With Their Government?   a. Political Parties   b. Campaigns and Elections   c. Interest Groups   d. The Media   e. The Internet in Politics 6. Congress: The People's Branch?   a. The Powers of Congress   b. Leadership in Congress: It's a Party Matter   c. The Importance of Committees   d. Who Is in Congress?   e. How a Bill Becomes a Law 7. The Presidency: The Leadership Branch?   a. The Evolution of the Presidency   b. All the President's Men and Women   c. Selection and Succession of the President   d. The President's Job   e. Presidential Character 8. The Bureaucracy: The Real Government   a. The Development of the Bureaucracy   b. The Organization of the Bureaucracy   c. Who Are the Bureaucrats?   d. Reforming the Bureaucracy 9. The Judicial Branch   a. The Creation of the Federal Courts   b. The Structure of the Federal Courts   c. The Supreme Court: What Does It Do?   d. How Judges and Justices Are Chosen   e. The Power of the Federal Courts 10. Civil Liberties and Civil Rights   a. Rights and Responsibilities of Citizens   b. First Amendment Rights   c. Crime and Due Process   d. Citizenship Rights 11. Policy Making: Political Interactions   a. Foreign Policy: What Now?   b. Defense Policy   c. Economic Policy   d. Social and Regulatory Policy 12. State and Local Governments   a. State and Local Governments: Democracy at Work?   b. Financing State and Local Government   c. Who Pays for Education? 13. Comparative Political and Economic Systems   a. Comparing Governments   b. Comparing Economic Systems   c. A Small, Small, World?

4d. Participating in Government

People may participate in politics in many ways. They can write their Representative or Senator, or work in for a candidate or political party. They can make presentations to their local school board or city council, or call the police to complain about the neighbor's dog. Partly because of our federalist system, people have many opportunities to participate in our democracy on federal, state, and local levels. Some forms of participation are more common than others and some citizens participate more than others, but almost everyone has a voice in government.

Who Participates and Why?

Experts have found several social and economic characteristics to be strongly associated with high levels of political participation:

• Education.
  The single most important characteristic of a politically active citizen is a high level of education. Generally, the more education an individual has, the more likely he or she is to vote. Why? Perhaps because the well educated understand complex issues better, or maybe they have learned the importance of civic responsibility. Or it could just be that their occupations are more flexible in allowing them to take time to go to the polls. Others argue that since educated people tend to be wealthier, they have more at stake in the political process.
  
  One way citizens can participate in government is by protesting ideas, policies, or agencies. Here, some high school students protest inhumane labor practices around the world by taking off their shirts to reveal slogans, rather than wearing clothes made by sweatshop labor.

• Age.
  Despite the big push in the early 1970s to allow 18 year olds to vote, 18-24 year olds have consistently held the lowest rate of voting. In fact, in recent years their older siblings (age 25-34 don't do a whole lot better. The highest percentages of eligible voters who actually vote are in those groups 45 and above.

• Racial and Ethnic Groups.
  If only race and ethnicity are considered, whites have higher voting rates than do blacks and Latinos. However, that tendency is somewhat deceptive. Some studies that control for income and education levels have found that the voting rates are about the same for whites, blacks, and Latinos.

• Gender.
  For many years women were underrepresented at the voting booths, but in recent elections, they have turned out in at least equal numbers to men. In fact, in 1992 and 1996, turnout among women actually exceeded that of men.

Declining Voter Turnout

Since the beginning of the 20th century, American voter turnout has been on the decline. Fewer than 50% of eligible voters went to the polls during the 1996 presidential election. Smaller percentages are routinely reported for congressional elections, and even fewer Americans bother to vote for their local representatives. The United States ranks near the bottom of modern democratic nations who measure voter turnout.

There are many factors that could contribute to low voter turnout. Many analysts cite growing alienation among voters. The scandals of the past several decades have engendered a cynicism that has led to a decrease in political interest, particularly among the nation's young voting population. There tends to be a correlation between self-efficacy — or the belief that an individual can actually make a difference — and voting. Some observers believe that the decline in voter turnout indicates that Americans feel less certain that they can have an impact than Americans of the 19th century.

Other analysts feel differently. They argue that American nonvoting may be a passive vote of confidence. Since many Americans are pleased with economic progress, they may feel reluctant to make a change, so they stay at home on Election Day. Also, American participation in political activities other than voting exceeds that of other modern democracies. More Americans report the willingness to participate in community projects, attend school board meetings, or contact their representatives directly than European citizens. Participation takes may forms. The American democracy enables its people to join a political party, work on a campaign, or contribute money toward a political cause. More locally, citizens form action groups, draw up petitions, and send mail to their representatives. Although American voter turnout has been declining, these other avenues of participation remain strong.